In the 20th century, women smashed glass ceilings across the world. But continued progress is not inevitable. Recent developments in the U.S. pose a stark warning: Abortion rights may be rolled back, and working-class women’s employment may be in jeopardy.

In the U.S., female school leavers are stuck in poorly paid “pink collar” jobs: as social workers, secretaries, beauticians, retail assistants, and waitresses. Mechanics, manufacturing, and other skilled manual jobs remain overwhelmingly male.

Why is this? There are at least four possible explanations.

BRAWN?

Physical strength is required in some manual roles—like construction in India and China. But in Western warehouses and factories, bulging biceps have been displaced by robots.

CULTURE?

Gender ideologies are pervasive. Stereotyped as caring and agreeable, working-class women may gravitate toward social care, retail, and hospitality. Conformity is also motivated by the desire for peer approval. With limited opportunity to collectively break out of this straitjacket, secondary school (or high school) graduates follow established norms.

Read the full article about working-class women by Alice Evans at Brookings.